Articles

Articles

There articles in English i.e. ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’. In fact there are certain situations where no article is needed. We have to follow certain guidelines in order to decide which article to use before a noun in the sentence.

First of all we have to categorize the noun as countable and uncountable. Countable nouns are those that refer to something that can be counted. They have both singular and plural forms (e.g. flower/flowers; man/men; country/countries). In the singular, they can be preceded by ‘a’ or ‘an’. Uncountable nouns are those that cannot be divided into separate elements and thus cannot be counted. For example- milk, oil, hair etc.

Rules for using articles ‘a’ and ‘an’.

1. Indefinite articles includes - ‘a’ and ‘an’. Articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles because they refer to any member of a group, rather than to a particular member of the group. We use them before a singular countable noun. Example: a pen, a boy, a plant, a building, a man, a red umbrella, a camel, a swimming pool, a university, etc.

2. We use ‘a’ and ‘an’ depending upon the sound with which a countable noun begins. Noun may begin with a consonant sound or a vowel sound.

3. We use ‘an’ if the following word begins with a vowel sound although they begin with a consonant. Example: an apple, an elephant, an hour, an MBA, an MNC, an MLA, an MP, an umbrella, an Igloo, an octopus, an honest girl, an ugly dress, an egg etc.

4. We use ‘a’ if the following word begins with a consonant sound. Example: a table, a girl, a book, a teacher, a union, etc.

5. We usually use a/an before a singular countable noun when we introduce a noun for the first time while speaking or writing.

6. Article ‘a’ is also used in phrases like have a headache, a bad cold, a noise, to be in a hurry, a good option etc.

7. The plural of indefinite articles ‘a/an’ is ‘some’. Word ‘some’ is used to denote unknown or any of the things.

Example:

    a. There are some mangoes trees in his garden.

    b. Pick up some mustard oil. (Means oil of any brand.)

Rules for using article ‘the’

‘The’ is called as the definite article as it points to a specific person or thing. Here the speaker as well the writer is aware of the identity of the noun.

Example:

       a.   The sun is the ultimate source of energy.

       b.   I met the doctor who is a neurosurgeon.

       c.   The order for laptops was sent yesterday.

       

1. We use ‘the’ before a noun when we talk about a particular member of a group (common noun). Example: The minister was invited for inauguration function of the mall.

    2. Article ‘the’ is also used when noun is unique and one of its kind. Example: the morning star, the saturn, the earth, the moon, the sun, the sky, the stars, the heaven, the hell etc.

     3. Article ‘the’ is used on its subsequent reference after it has already been introduced or used while writing or speaking. Example: I saw a boy and a girl playing along the beach. The boy was making a castle using sand. In this sentence, both the words ‘boy’ and ‘girl’ are countable nouns and hence the words are preceded by ‘a’ when used for the first time. But the same word is preceded by ‘the’ when repeated in the same context.

    4. Definite article ‘the’ is also used before superlative adjectives. Example: the tallest tree, the most beautiful house, the longest rope, the least harmful medicine, the best option etc.

         Sample Sentence

a.   This is the smallest umbrella I have ever seen.

b.   Our kitchen garden is the biggest in our neighborhood.

c.   This is the best alternative among others.

d.   She is the most beautiful girl in our locality.

5. Use ‘the’ to represent the entire class or group of people, animals or things.

      Example:

   a.  The cat is as nice as dog.  

   b.   The toddler is naughty by nature.

6. Before the names of (a) sacred books, (b) newspapers, (c) rivers, (d) well known buildings, (e) mountain ranges, (f) seas, oceans, (g) islands etc.

   Example:

     a.   The Gita, the Bible, the Guru Granth Sahib, the Quran.

    b.   The Times of India, The Indian Express, The Hindustan Times, The New York Times, The Tribune, The Indian Express etc.

     c.   The Ganga, the Nile, the Yamuna, the Indus, the Narmada etc.

     d. The Himalayas, the Andes, the Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Alps etc.

    e. The Indian Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean,  the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean.

7. Write ‘the’ before the names of communities. Example:  the Hindus, the Muslims, the Cholas, the Christians, the Sikhs, the English, the Aryans.

8. Use article ‘the’ in phrases like in the winter, in the summer, in the autumn, in the morning, in the evening, in the afternoon, in the night and linkers like on the other hand, to speak the reality, to tell you the fact etc.

9. We use ‘the’ following a class. Example: the rich, the poor, the middle class, the elite, the schedule caste etc.

10. Use ‘the’ when ‘of’ is a part of the school’s or universities name. Example: the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India, the University of Calcutta etc.

11. Use article ‘the’ to refer a part from a large group.

    Example:

       a. One of the girls was absent.

       b. Some of the stolen jewelry was recovered.

12. Avoid using ‘the’ unless the name of the country refers to a group or has the word “of” within the name. Example: United States of America. 

13. Use the before ordinal numbers such as “first,” “second,” “third”, “fourth”  etc.

Omission of the Article

1. Do not use articles before cities and streets. Example: His clinic is in Ghaziabad.

2. When we refer to a common noun that stands for something in the widest of sense.

    Example:

       a. He is only man. (It means that he cannot be God.)

       b. What kind of answer is it?

3. Skip article in case of material noun.

     Example:

       a. Platinum is very precious.

       b. Don’t waste water.

4. Skip article while referring to language.

      Example:

       a. Hindi is my mother tongue.

       b. I scored good grade in English in my first term exam.

5. Articles are not required while referring the name of a relation like brother, sister, mother, father, husband, God.

       Example:

       a. My brother is coming tonight.

       b. Mother is already home.

6. Article is not used before proper nouns like Qutub Minar, Rajiv, Delhi except in few cases.

       Example:

       a. He is the Shakespeare of our city.

       b. He is the Newton of this era.

7. Do not use any article before temple, church, school, hospital, bed, market, court, etc. which are visited for the primary purpose for which they have been created.

       Example:

        a. She is going to market.(to shop)

        b. She is going to the market. (for some other purpose)

CBSE Grade 7 Science Ch 13- Motion and Time

Grade 7 Science Ch 13- Motion and Time


Q Fill in the blanks.

i.        The metallic ball is called the __________of the pendulum.
ii.        The symbols of all units are written in ______________.
iii.        The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its ______________.
iv.        One microsecond is one ______________of a second.
v.        A nanosecond is one ______________of a second.
vi.        The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a constant speed is a ___________________.


Q2. True/False

i.        The basic unit of time is second. _______
ii.        Every object moves with a constant speed. ________
iii.        Distances between two cities are measured in kilometres. ________
iv.        The time period of a given pendulum is not constant. ________
v.        The speed of a train is expressed in m/h. _________
vi.        Clocks that measure such small time intervals are used for scientific research. _______

Q3. What is the basic unit of time?

Q4. What is the basic unit of speed?

Q5. What is speedometer?

Q6. What is distance-time graph?

Q7. What is speed?

Q8. What is oscillatory motion?

Q9. What is motion?

Q10. What is circular motion?

Q11. Give an example of oscillatory motion.

Q12. What is non-uniform motion?

Q13. What is uniform motion?

Q14. What is the smallest time interval that can be measured with commonly available clocks and watches?

Q15. What is a simple pendulum?

Q16. How time was measured when pendulum clocks were not available?

Q17. What are quartz clocks?

Q18. What is average speed?

Q19. The distance between two stations is 240 km. A train takes 4 hours to cover this distance. Calculate the speed of the train.

Q20. A simple pendulum takes 32 s to complete 20 oscillations. What is the time period of the pendulum?

Q21. Salma takes 15 minutes from her house to reach her school on a bicycle. If the bicycle has a speed of 2 m/s, calculate the distance between her house and the school.

Q22. When pendulum is said to have one complete oscillation?

Q23. The following Fig. shows the distance-time graph for the motion of two vehicles A and B. Which one of them is moving faster?

Q24. Classify the following as motion along a straight line, circular or oscillatory motion:

(i) Motion of your hands while running. ________________
(ii) Motion of a horse pulling a cart on a straight road. ______________
(iii) Motion of a child in a merry-go-round.  ____________________
(iv) Motion of a child on a see-saw. ______________________
(v) Motion of the hammer of an electric bell. __________________
(vi) Motion of a train on a straight bridge. _____________________

Q25. The odometer of a car reads 57321.0 km when the clock shows the time 08:30 AM. What is the distance moved by the car, if at 08:50 AM, the odometer reading has changed to 57336.0 km? Calculate the speed of the car in km/min during this time. Express the speed in km/h also.

Q26. Show the shape of the distance-time graph for the motion in the following cases:
(i) A car moving with a constant speed.
(ii) A car parked on a side road.

Q27. A car moves with a speed of 40 km/h for 15 minutes and then with a speed of 60 km/h for the next 15 minutes. Calculate the total distance covered by the car.

Q28. Explain how in ancient time a day, a month and a year were measured?

Q29. What are the points that should be considered while choosing the most suitable scale for drawing a graph?

Q30. Write down the steps to draw a graph.

Q31.Differentiate between distance and displacement.

Q32.Differentiate between uniform speed and average speed.

Q33.How can you say that motion and rest are relative?

Q34.Give an example when objects undergo combinations of different types of motion?

Q35.State different types of motion?

Q36. Look at the graph below of two vehicles A and B, which one of them is moving faster.

Q37. Which of the following distance-time graphs shows a truck moving with speed which is not constant?

Answers

Q1. Fill in the blanks.

                           i.        The metallic ball is called the bob of the pendulum.

                          ii.        The symbols of all units are written in singular.                        iii.        The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its time period.

                         iv.        One microsecond is one millionth of a second.

                          v.        A nanosecond is one billionth of a second.

                         vi.        The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a constant speed is a straight line.

Q2. True/False

                           i.        The basic unit of time is second. True

                          ii.        Every object moves with a constant speed. False

                         iii.        Distances between two cities are measured in kilometres. True

                         iv.        The time period of a given pendulum is not constant. False

                          v.        The speed of a train is expressed in m/h. False

                         vi.        Clocks that measure such small time intervals are used for scientific research. True

Q3. What is the basic unit of time?
Ans. The basic unit of time is a second. Its symbol is s.

Q4. What is the basic unit of speed?
Ans. Basic unit of speed is metre per second (m/s).

Q5. What is speedometer?
Ans. Speedometer is an instrument that indicates the speed of a vehicle.

Q6. What is distance-time graph?
Ans. Distance-time graph represents the speed of an object.

Q7. What is speed?
Ans. The distance moved by an object in a unit time is called its speed.

Q8. What is oscillatory motion?
Ans. The to and fro motion of an object is called oscillatory motion.

Q9. What is motion?
Ans. Motion is a change in position of an object over time.

Q10. What is circular motion?
Ans. Circular motion is rotation of an object along a circular path

Q11. Give an example of oscillatory motion.
Ans. The to and fro motion of a simple pendulum is an example of a periodic or an oscillatory motion.

Q12. What is non-uniform motion?
Ans. If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, its motion is said to be non-uniform.

Q13. What is uniform motion?
Ans. An object moving along a straight line with a constant speed is said to be in uniform motion.

Q14. What is the smallest time interval that can be measured with commonly available clocks and watches?
Ans. The smallest time interval that can be measured with commonly available clocks and watches is one second.

Q15. What is a simple pendulum?
Ans. A simple pendulum consists of a small metallic ball or a piece of stone suspended from a rigid stand by a thread. The metallic ball is called the bob of the pendulum.

Q16. How time was measured when pendulum clocks were not available?
Ans. Many time measuring devices were used in different parts of the world before the pendulum clocks became popular. Sundials, water clocks and sand clocks are some examples of such devices.

Q17. What are quartz clocks?
Ans. Nowadays most clocks or watches have an electric circuit with one or more cells. These clocks are called quartz clocks. The time measured by quartz clocks is much more accurate than that by the clocks available earlier.

Q18. What is average speed?
Ans. Speed or average speed is the total distance covered divided by the total time taken. Thus,

Q19. The distance between two stations is 240 km. A train takes 4 hours to cover this distance. Calculate the speed of the train.
Ans. Distance between two stations = 240 km
Time taken to cover this distance = 4 hours

Q20. A simple pendulum takes 32 s to complete 20 oscillations. What is the time period of the pendulum?
Ans. Number of oscillations = 20
Total time taken to complete 20 oscillations = 32 s

Q21. Salma takes 15 minutes from her house to reach her school on a bicycle. If the bicycle has a speed of 2 m/s, calculate the distance between her house and the school.
Ans. Time taken = 15 min = 15 x 60 = 900 seconds
Speed = 2 m/s
Distance = Speed x Time
             = 2 x 900 = 1800 m = 1800/1000 = 1.8 km

Q22. When pendulum is said to have one complete oscillation?
Ans. The pendulum is said to have completed one oscillation when its bob, starting from its mean position B, moves to A, to C and back to B.

Q23. The following Fig. shows the distance-time graph for the motion of two vehicles A and B. Which one of them is moving faster?
Ans. Vehicle A is moving faster. Speed of the vehicle is greater if it covers maximum distance in a given interval of time.

Q24. Classify the following as motion along a straight line, circular or oscillatory motion:
(i) Motion of your hands while running. Oscillatory motion
(ii) Motion of a horse pulling a cart on a straight road. Straight line
(iii) Motion of a child in a merry-go-round.  Circular motion
(iv) Motion of a child on a see-saw. Oscillatory motion
(v) Motion of the hammer of an electric bell. Oscillatory motion
(vi) Motion of a train on a straight bridge. Straight line

Q25. The odometer of a car reads 57321.0 km when the clock shows the time 08:30 AM. What is the distance moved by the car, if at 08:50 AM, the odometer reading has changed to 57336.0 km? Calculate the speed of the car in km/min during this time. Express the speed in km/h also.
Ans. Distance covered = 57336-57321 = 15 km
Time taken = 8:50 – 8:30 = 20 min
Now, convert 20 min into hour = 20/60 = 1/3 h

Q26. Show the shape of the distance-time graph for the motion in the following cases:
(i) A car moving with a constant speed.
(ii) A car parked on a side road.
Ans. A car moving with a constant speed.

A car parked on a side road.

Q27. A car moves with a speed of 40 km/h for 15 minutes and then with a speed of 60 km/h for the next 15 minutes. Calculate the total distance covered by the car.
Ans. Case 1
Speed = 40km/h
Time taken = 15 min = 15/60 = ¼ hours
Distance = Speed x Time = 40 X ¼ = 10 km
Case 2
Speed = 60km/h
Time taken = 15 min = 15/60 = ¼ hours
Distance = Speed x Time = 60 X ¼ = 15 km
Total Distance = 10 km + 15 km = 25 km

Q28. Explain how in ancient time a day, a month and a year were measured?
Ans. Our ancestors noticed that many events in nature repeat themselves after definite intervals of time. For example, they found that the sun rises every day in the morning. The time between one sunrise and the next was called a day. Similarly, a month was measured from one new moon to the next. A year was fixed as the time taken by the earth to complete one revolution of the sun.

Q29. What are the points that should be considered while choosing the most suitable scale for drawing a graph?
Ans. Some of the points to be kept in mind while choosing the most suitable scale for drawing a graph are:
                          i.        the difference between the highest and the lowest values of each quantity.
                         ii.        the intermediate values of each quantity, so that with the scale chosen it is convenient to mark the values on the graph, and
                        iii.        to utilise the maximum part of the paper on which the graph is to be drawn.

Q30. Write down the steps to draw a graph.
Ans. Steps
                           i.        Draw two perpendicular lines to represent the two axes and mark them as OX and OY.
                          ii.        Decide the quantity to be shown along the x-axis and that to be shown along the y-axis.
                         iii.        Choose a scale to represent the distance and another to represent the time on the graph.
                        iv.        Mark values for the time and the distance on the respective axes according to the scale you have chosen.
                        v.        Mark the points on the graph paper to represent each set of values for distance and time. Join the points.

Q31.Differentiate between distance and displacement.
A- The distance covered by a moving object is the actual length of the path followed by the object is called. Distance is a scalar quantity. SI unit of distance is meter. But Displacement is the shortest distance covered by a moving object from the point of reference (initial position of the body), in a specified direction.

Q32.Differentiate between uniform speed and average speed.
A- An object is said to be moving with uniform speed if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time. But when we travel in a vehicle the speed of the vehicle changes from time to time depending upon the conditions existing on the road. In such a situation, the speed is calculated by taking the ratio of the total distance travelled by the vehicle to the total time taken for the journey. This is called the average speed.

Q33.How can you say that motion and rest are relative?
A-We have observed that the position of stars and planets change while you remain stationary. In reality the earth is moving too. Thus, an object which appears to be at rest, may actually be in motion. Therefore, motion and rest are relative terms.

Q34.Give an example when objects undergo combinations of different types of motion?
A- The motion of a ball on the ground. Here the ball is rolling on the ground and rotating as well as moving forward on the ground. Thus, the ball undergoes a rectilinear motion as well as rotational motion.

Q35.State different types of motion?
A- Following are different types of motion:
Translatory Motion: - In Translatory motion the particle moves from one point in space to another. This motion may be along a straight line or along a curved path.
Rectilinear motion : Motion along a straight line is called rectilinear motion. Example: A car moving on a straight road
Curvilinear motion: Motion along a curved path is called curvilinear motion. Example: A car negotiating a curve
Rotatory Motion : In rotatory motion, the particles of the body describe concentric circles about the axis of motion
Vibratory Motion: In vibratory motion the particles move to and fro about a fixed point.

Q36. Look at the graph below of two vehicles A and B, which one of them is moving faster.

Ans:
The vehicle A is moving faster as distance represented by vertical axis of A is more as compare to B for a given point of time.

Q37. Which of the following distance-time graphs shows a truck moving with speed which is not constant?
               

Ans- 

Chapter 6 – Towns, Traders and Craftspersons , CBSE grade 7 History

Grade 7 CBSE

Chapter 6 – Towns, Traders and Craftspersons

Q1. True/False

i.        We know the name of the architect of the Rajarajeshvara temple from an inscription. _______
ii.        Merchants preferred to travel individually rather than in caravans. ________
iii.        Traders formed guilds to protect their interests. ________
iv.        Kabul was a major centre for trade in elephants. ________
v.        Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century. _______
vi.        Surat was an important trading port on the Bay of Bengal. ________
vii.        The “white” rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St George in   Madras or Fort St William in Calcutta. ________
viii.        The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch. ________


Q2. Fill in the blanks


i.        The Rajarajeshvara temple was built in ________________________.
ii.        Ajmer is associated with the Sufi saint _________________________.
iii.        Hampi was the capital of the __________________Empire.
iv.        The Dutch established a settlement at _________________in Andhra Pradesh.
v.        Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made __________________.
vi.        Bronze is an alloy containing ___________ and __________.
vii.        Rulers built temples to demonstrate their _________to various deities.

Q3. What was the other name of "Saliyar" community?

Q4. Who was Christopher Columbus?

Q5. Who was Jean Baptist Tavernier?

Q6. What do the ruins of hampi reveal?

Q7. Which technique was used to make the Chola bronze statues?

Q8. From where did Gujarati Traders bring gold and ivory?

Q9. When did Vasco de Gama reach Calicut?

Q10. What was the capital of the ancient Chola kingdom?

Q11. How was water supplied to the city of Thanjavur?

Q12. How did temple authorities use their wealth?

Q13. What is bell metal?

Q14. Name two famous guilds of south India from the eighth century onwards.

Q15. How did European gain control of the sea route?

Q16. What is emporium?

Q17. Name the regions with whom the "guilds" of South India mostly traded.

Q18. Who lived in the “Black Towns” in cities such as Madras?

Q19. What is Bidri?

Q20. Why has Surat called the gate to mecca?

Q21. What were the textiles of Surat famous for?

Q22. What was the significance of Surat hundis?

Q23. Where is Hampi located?

Q24. Name the spices which became part of European cooking.

Q25. Why did the rulers endow temples with grants of land and money?

Q26. From where did the Gujarati Traders imported spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver?

Q27. Why both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam?

Q28. Write some important temple towns.

Q29. What is hundi?

Q30. What do temple town represent?

Q31. Who tried to play off Dutch and English against each other and why?

Q32. What attracted European traders to India?

Q33. Write a brief note about Murshidabad.

Q34. What kind of market did the small towns have?

Q35. What was the system of advances? How did it affect the life of Weavers?

Q36. What was the role of a samanta or a zamindar?

Q37. What would a traveller visiting a medieval town expect to find?

Q38. How did the system of advances snatch the freedom of the weavers?

Q39. What were the reasons for the decline of Surat?

Q40. How important were craftspersons for the building and maintenance of temples?

Q41. Write a note on taxes on market in 10th century.

Q42. Why do you think towns grew around temples?

Q43. Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships. Explain

Q44. Write a short note on “lost wax” technique.

Q45. How was the architecture of Hampi distinctive?

Q46. Why did people from distant lands visit Surat?

Q47. Describe the trading community of the medieval period.

Q48. In what ways was craft production in cities like Calcutta different from that in cities like Thanjavur?

Q49. Write a note about network of small towns that emerged after eighth century onward.

Q50. Explain why Surat was the gateway for trade with West.

Q51. How was Hampi in its heyday in the 15-16th centuries? When did it fall to ruin?

Q52. Why did Masulipatnam become prosperous and popular?

Q53. Describe the town Thanjavur.
Or
Why do you think people regarded Thanjavur as a great town?

                          Answers


Q1. True/False

i.        We know the name of the architect of the Rajarajeshvara temple from an inscription. True
ii.        Merchants preferred to travel individually rather than in caravans. False
iii.        Traders formed guilds to protect their interests. True
iv.        Kabul was a major centre for trade in elephants. False
v.        Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century. True
vi.        Surat was an important trading port on the Bay of Bengal. False
vii.        The “white” rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St George in Madras or Fort St William in Calcutta. True
viii.        The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch. True


Q2. Fill in the blanks


i.        The Rajarajeshvara temple was built in the early eleventh century.
ii.        Ajmer is associated with the Sufi saint Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti.
iii.        Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire.
iv.        The Dutch established a settlement at Masulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
v.        Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations.
vi.        Bronze is an alloy containing copper and tin.
vii.        Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.

Q3. What was the other name of "Saliyar" community?
Ans. Kaikkolars

Q4. Who was Christopher Columbus?
Ans. Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer.

Q5. Who was Jean Baptist Tavernier?
Ans. Jean Baptiste Tavernier was a diamond merchant.

Q6. What do the ruins of hampi reveal?
Ans. The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city.

Q7. Which technique was used to make the Chola bronze statues?
Ans. Chola bronze statues were made using the “lost wax” technique.

Q8. From where did Gujarati Traders bring gold and ivory?
Ans. They brought gold and ivory from Africa.

Q9. When did Vasco de Gama reach Calicut?
Ans. Vasco de Gama reached Calicut in 1498.

Q10. What was the capital of the ancient Chola kingdom?
Ans. Thanjavur was the capital of the ancient Chola kingdom.

Q11. How was water supplied to the city of Thanjavur?
Ans. Water supply for the city of Thanjavur comes from wells and tanks.

Q12. How did temple authorities use their wealth?
Ans. Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking.

Q13. What is bell metal?
Ans. Bell metal contains a greater proportion of tin than other kinds of bronze.

Q14. Name two famous guilds of south India from the eighth century onwards.
Ans. Manigramam and Nanadesi

Q15. How did European gain control of the sea route?
Ans. European Companies used their naval power to gain control of the sea trade.

Q16. What is emporium?
Ans.  Emporium is a place where goods from diverse production centres are bought and sold.

Q17. Name the regions with whom the "guilds" of South India mostly traded.
Ans. These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.

Q18. Who lived in the “Black Towns” in cities such as Madras?
Ans. Merchants and artisans (such as weavers) lived in the “Black Towns” in cities such as Madras.

Q19. What is Bidri?
Ans. The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper and silver that it came to be called Bidri.

Q20. Why has Surat called the gate to mecca?
Ans. Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.

Q21. What were the textiles of Surat famous for?
Ans. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.

Q22. What was the significance of Surat hundis?
Ans. Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.

Q23. Where is Hampi located?
Ans. Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 1336.

Q24. Name the spices which became part of European cooking.
Ans. Spices grown in tropical climates (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried ginger, etc.) became an important part of European cooking.

Q25. Why did the rulers endow temples with grants of land and money?
Ans. They endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals.

Q26. From where did the Gujarati Traders imported spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver?
Ans. Gujarati Traders imported spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver from Southeast Asia and China.

Q27. Why both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam?
Ans. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam as it became the most important port on the Andhra coast.

Q28. Write some important temple towns.
Ans. Thanjavur,  Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), and Somnath in Gujarat, Kanchipuram, Madurai in Tamil Nadu, and Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.

Q29. What is hundi?
Ans.  Hundi is a note recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in another place by presenting the record of the deposit.

Q30. What do temple town represent?
Ans. Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.

Q31. Who tried to play off Dutch and English against each other and why?
Ans. As the Mughals began to extend their power to Golconda their representative, the governor Mir Jumla who was also a merchant, began to play off the Dutch and the English against each other.


Q32. What attracted European traders to India?
Ans. Spices grown in tropical climates (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried ginger, etc.) became an important part of European cooking, and cotton cloth was very attractive. This eventually drew European traders to India.

Q33. Write a brief note about Murshidabad.
Ans. Murshidabad (West Bengal) on the banks of the Bhagirathi, which rose to prominence as a centre for silks and became the capital of Bengal in 1704, declined in the course of the century as the weavers faced competition from cheap mill-made cloth from England.

Q34. What kind of market did the small towns have?
Ans. They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearby villagers brought their produce to sell. They also had market streets called hatta (haat of later times) lined with shops. Besides, there were streets for different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, stonemasons, etc.

Q35. What was the system of advances? How did it affect the life of Weavers?
Ans. Crafts persons began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents. Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving their own patterns. They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the Company agents.

Q36. What was the role of a samanta or a zamindar?
Ans. Usually a samanta or, in later times, a zamindar built a fortified palace in or near these towns. They levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade and sometimes “donated” the “right” to collect these taxes to local temples, which had been built by themselves or by rich merchants. These “rights” were recorded in inscriptions that have survived to this day.

Q37. What would a traveller visiting a medieval town expect to find?
Ans. This would depend on what kind of a town it was – a temple town, an administrative centre, a commercial town or a port town to name just some possibilities. In fact, many towns combined several functions – they were administrative centres, temple towns, as well as centres of commercial activities and craft production.

Q38. How did the system of advances snatch the freedom of the weavers?
Ans. Indian textile designs became increasingly refined. However, this period also saw the decline of the independence of craftspersons. They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents. Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving their own patterns. They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the Company agents.

Q39. What were the reasons for the decline of Surat?
Ans. However, Surat began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth century. This was because of many factors:
i.        The loss of markets and productivity because of the decline of the Mughal Empire.
ii.        Control of the sea routes by the Portuguese and competition from Bombay (present-day Mumbai) where the English East India Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.

Q40. How important were craftspersons for the building and maintenance of temples?
Ans. Craftspersons were important for the building and maintenance of temples:
i.        The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the building of temples.
ii.        Similarly, weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities, making donations to temples.

Q41. Write a note on taxes on market in 10th century.
Ans. There were taxes in kind on:
Sugar and jaggery, dyes, thread, and cotton,
On coconuts, salt, areca nuts, butter, sesame oil,
On cloth
Besides, there were taxes on traders, on those who sold metal goods, on distillers, on oil, on cattle fodder, and on loads of grain. Some of these taxes were collected in kind, while others were collected in cash.

Q42. Why do you think towns grew around temples?
Ans. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities. They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals. Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations. Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking. Gradually a large number of priests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple to cater to its needs and those of the pilgrims. Thus grew temple towns.

Q43. Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships. Explain
Ans. Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships. Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh) and Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu) are examples of two such towns. Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century and later became the suba headquarters under the Mughals. It provides an excellent example of religious coexistence. Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, the celebrated Sufi saint who settled there in the twelfth century, attracted devotees from all creeds. Near Ajmer is a lake, Pushkar, which has attracted pilgrims from ancient times.

Q44. Write a short note on “lost wax” technique.
Ans. Chola bronze statues were made using the “lost wax” technique.
i.        First, an image was made of wax. This was covered with clay and allowed to dry.
ii.        Next it was heated, and a tiny hole was made in the clay cover. The molten wax was drained out through this hole.
iii.        Then molten metal was poured into the clay mould through the hole. Once the metal cooled and solidified, the clay cover was carefully removed, and the image was cleaned and polished.

Q45. How was the architecture of Hampi distinctive?
Ans. Architecture of Hampi was distinctive in several ways:
i.        The Hampi was a well-fortified city. No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls and the technique followed was to wedge them together by interlocking.
ii.        The buildings in the royal complex had splendid arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for holding sculptures.
iii.        They also had well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as the lotus and corbels.

Q46. Why did people from distant lands visit Surat?
Ans. People from distant lands visited Surat because of the following reason:
i.        Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
ii.        Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.
iii.        The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
iv.        The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people from all over the world who came to the city. There were magnificent buildings and innumerable pleasure parks.

Q47. Describe the trading community of the medieval period.
Ans. There were many kinds of traders. These included the Banjaras. Several traders, especially horse traders, formed associations, with headmen who negotiated on their behalf with warriors who bought horses. There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal who went on to become the principal trading groups of the country. Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China. The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish and Syrian Christian traders.

Q48. In what ways was craft production in cities like Calcutta different from that in cities like Thanjavur?
Ans. Craft persons of Calcutta began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents. Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving their own patterns. They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the Company agents.
Craft persons of Thanjavur were independent. They had the liberty of selling their own cloth or crafts. The Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and the nearby town of Uraiyur produce cloth for flags to be used in the temple festival, fine cottons for the king and nobility and coarse cotton for the masses. The sthapatis or sculptors make exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps.

Q49. Write a note about network of small towns that emerged after eighth century onward.
Ans. From the eighth century onwards the subcontinent was dotted with several small towns.
i.        Small towns probably emerged from large villages. They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearby villagers brought their produce to sell.
ii.        They also had market streets called hatta lined with shops. Besides, there were streets for different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, stonemasons, etc.
iii.        While some traders lived in the town, others travelled from town to town. Many came from far and near to these towns to buy local articles and sell products of distant places like horses, salt, camphor, saffron, betel nut and spices like pepper.

Q50. Explain why Surat was the gateway for trade with West.
Ans. Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz. The city was cosmopolitan and people of all castes and creeds lived there. In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at Surat. According to the English chronicler Ovington who wrote an account of the port in 1689, on average a hundred ships of different countries could be found anchored at the port at any given time. There were also several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe. The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people from all over the world who came to the city.

Q51. How was Hampi in its heyday in the 15-16th centuries? When did it fall to ruin?
Ans. In its heyday in the fifteenth sixteenth centuries, Hampi bustled with commercial and cultural activities.
i.        Moors (a name used collectively for Muslim merchants), Chettis and agents of European traders such as the Portuguese, thronged the markets of Hampi.
ii.        Temples were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple dancers) performed before the deity, royalty and masses in the many-pillared halls in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple.
iii.        The Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south, was one of the most important festivals celebrated at Hampi.
Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans – the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.

Q52. Why did Masulipatnam become prosperous and popular?
Ans. The town of Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam (literally, fish port town) lay on the delta of the Krishna river.
i.        In the seventeenth century it was a centre of intense activity. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam as it became the most important port on the Andhra coast.
ii.        The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices and other items to prevent the trade passing completely into the hands of the various East India Companies.
iii.        Fierce competition among various trading groups – the Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders – made the city populous and prosperous.

Q53. Describe the town Thanjavur.
Or
Why do you think people regarded Thanjavur as a great town?
Ans. People regarded Thanjavur as a great town because of the following reasons:
i.        Thanjavur was the capital of the Cholas.The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. One hears the bells of the Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajaraja Chola.
ii.        The townspeople are all praise for its architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan who has proudly carved his name on the temple wall. Inside is a massive Shiva linga.
iii.        Besides the temple, there are palaces with mandapas or pavilions. Kings hold court in these mandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates. There are also barracks for the army.

iv.        The town is bustling with markets selling grain, spices, cloth and jewellery. Water supply for the town comes from wells and tanks.